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The translation is solid and it's an engaging read. The text isn't too hard to get through (using it for a college political philosophy class). Who shouldn't read one of the greats.
2nd is God the ultimate sense of actuality prior to potentiality.Talking about other philosopher's ideas. Matter can't answer the question of being without form. Thus, non-rational movement is very regular. Thus, the word "being" is just a word in a sense a focal point like the word health, i.e.
However, when we analyze beings, we can use secondary being. Idea of "is" or "being" will shift depending on what you are talking about. I read this book for a graduate seminar on Aristotle.Topic of Metaphysics is Ousia=substance and being. It shifts depending on circumstances. Aristotle did not give up on Ousia as form. There are three kinds of ousia, all are a study of secondary ousia in some way.1.Physics-study of material and moveable.2.Mathematical-study of ousia that is non-moving, (1+1=2 always), but is derived from matter.3.Theology is study of ousia that is non-moving and non-material.This is scheme of understanding the nature of understanding something. Aristotle says you can't find it. Categories vs.
1 of 3 factors has changed, time. All philosophy stems from wonder and puzzlement. In realm of nature, form and matter can't be separated for Aristotle. Can't be going up and down a hill at the same time. Grammatically basic.
However, from the standpoint of "being" the perceptible "this" has primacy. Thus, you have pure actuality of Divine. The essence of a thing is "what" it is, it gives us knowledge. We begin from wonder (ignorance) philosophy is to illuminate wonder with answers. Then when we learn about it, we actually just discover what the thing is. A thing is what it is, it can't be equal to its opposite. Analytically both can be separate and distinct, but not in reality.
If you talk about change as a potentiality, you have a way of solving the puzzle. This actually serves as a slap at Renee Descartes in the future wondering if he is conscious or in a dream state. Rational and non-rational potentiality. Again, and again, the best way you can get a handle on that is he is critiquing Plato. Ontology now moves to theology.
Limitation in nature is matter which is unstable but all things in nature strive to their potential. Aristotle explains well how we lead our life by the principle a very pragmatic explanation. Aristotle is OK with using examples. Categories vs. A things essence is going to be the ultimate answer to the question of what is being. Soma=body. Primary Ousia is things perceptible in nature. Can't use abstract math to explain a human.
Being is neither a universal nor a genus, (genus is animal in hierarchy). Matter can't be primary being like atomists, nor form alone like Platonists. This is his theological science. This matter and form is never separated for Aristotle, thus a composite of matter and form is in the Metaphysics. Psuche=soul which is the word he uses for life. We have three-part soul, plant, animal and human all are part of this. All things are derived from a primary ousia.This has to do with focal being, health is such a word.
It is impossible for the same thing to both belong and not to belong to the same thing at the same time to the same thing in the same respect. If you want to know what is the big deal about the perceptible "this," the primary ousia. When we practice medicine, it might not work out.Theoria=contemplation. This is a principle we live by as humans thus, no one can deny it. He doesn't deny Greek deities but the way poets depict them is deficient. Matter by itself can't give us the answer to what a thing is.Ousia=substance and being. Aristotle thought reality was organized this way.
Emphasis between primary and secondary being, Ousia. Things in nature that are alive. Our parents actually reproduced us. For him the Divine is satisfaction for the mind to grasp reality.Uber Ousia.
For Aristotle Ousia or being is not just a thing, many ways being can be understood. He wants to move away from Plato's idea that it is possible to understand beings apart from the material world. I recommend Aristotle's works to anyone interested in obtaining a classical education, and those interested in philosophy. This is contrary to Plato. Thus, a thing in nature always has actuality; we are always on the move. This is contrary to Plato.
This is how Aristotle recognizes the phenomenology of human thought. In the same respect, what does it mean. He wants to grasp the final. What is the meaning of being.
Especially since these composite things are always changing because nature is the realm of movement and change and the idea of form will at least give us access to how we can know changing things and actuality and potentiality. So what he is emphasizing in the Metaphysics is the idea of ousia as form, as some kind of essence, but never separated from matter.Ousia --1. When we talk about different aspects of health, it is not a universal definition like Socrates looks for. Aristotle is one of the most important philosophers and the standard that all others must be judged by. Ousia= Being is the "this" spoken of in primary ousia. The term "being" has plurality to it, depending on how we regard it (like using a hammer as a paperweight).
It is as though Aristotle wants to say that the primary meaning of being is the "this" the subject, i.e. We can talk of the "being" as quality as "not white." Being spoken of in many ways but only of one thing, i.e., "the focal being." Word being has flexibility. Aristotle believes when it comes to knowledge and reality the principle of noncontradiction is most basic and most fundamental and evident principle, because without it we can't communicate or think about things. Bronze can't be essence of circle, the form is important, not the matter. Ousia As Ontologically basic, something that exists in its own right.
Therefore, it is a process of coming to understand the universal, the essence, but that was always there in the thing, it just needed to be done. Therefore, from a knowledge standpoint, secondary ousia, which is things like categories and context, they have primacy in knowledge. In the Metaphysics, the question of form is primary Ousia. In the categories discussion, he doesn't talk about the distinction between matter and form, it comes later on in the Physics and then the Metaphysics. (the what it is to be). Aristotle here is talking about 2 senses of eternity. Even though Metaphysics emphasizes form, it is "this form." Primary thing is the "this." He wants to move away from Plato's idea that we can separate matter from form.
From standpoint of knowledge and reality principle of noncontradiction is stable. Metaphysics. (Theology in the Metaphysics is speaking about God for Aristotle). A "hill" is both up and down but meaningless unless you think in relation of motion. Hesiod question of the Gods in poetry, night comes before day, thus we don't have access in the "dark" symbolic of precedence of something unknowable, and Aristotle doesn't like it. Ideas of potentiality and actuality criticizes Platonic idea. If change were the last word, the mind could never come to rest.
1st two levels have limitations to them. Thus, for him he has the unmoved mover.The pure actuality of the Divine is Aristotle's nominee for the principal that explains why there is this movement in the first place. Ousia= Being is the "this" spoken of in primary ousia. Aristotle makes distinction between worthy puzzles or useless ones. God is only exception to form and matter together. It has to do with both knowledge and being. Divine is pure form and actuality without matter and potentiality.
You never come across things without their form. Changing things will always have this element of excess, beyond the minds capacity to grasp. Definition= essence. The Platonist in Aristotle says in the Metaphysics that if all there is, is matter and form then there is always an element of elusiveness in things because matter cannot fully deliver how we know things.
In reality, composite of form and matter is always in motion until it ends. Aristotle thought that this was the firmest of all principles. 2nd is in order to understand whole world there has to be something, the unmoved mover. An important governing thought in Western philosophy. Aristotle says no, health is unity by analogy.
"This" is ontologically primary. Why would it be wrong to say that the "this" the perceptible encounter wouldn't be primary from the standpoint of knowledge. Actuality is prior to potentiality; this is his ultimate metaphysical statement. What rational means here is human drama of seeking what might or not work out. Movement is actualization of potential. Metaphysics.
3rd level is big for Aristotle. Principle of NoncontradictionArche= principle, beginning and rule. This is what Heraclitus argued for, Aristotle didn't like it. When it comes to knowledge, we must emphasize the ousia as form. However, a things essence can't be separated from its statement of thing, it is almost as though that this essence is going to mean the definition of a thing, "what it is." Then in some respects, it has the characteristics of a secondary being. Aristotle does make certain commitments; he makes certain commitments to the idea that the primary sense of being must be used in nature that are evident to us. The "this" is ontologically primary in terms of what the "being" something, what something is.
In Greek for Aristotle, a bed is not an Ousia because it is from techne=craft it can have an essence. Two ways Aristotle proves this idea. Ousia as form and essence. The 1st example is how humans speak, the 2nd example is how things really are, both are both side of the same coin. Ousia =form in Metaphysics. Ontological= the most general branch of metaphysics, concerned with the nature of being. With respect to matter and form, it is primarily about form. If you only talk about matter, you have nothing definable.
Ousia is reserved for material things self manufactured in nature. Now rational is stable when you heat water it boils no other potentiality. 1.Endless time. Aristotle's text De Anima is on "The Soul" is a philosophical biological treatise. 1st is never begins, never ends this is eternity or infinity. Human reason is precarious we may not use potentiality to reach actuality. It isn't that first you have material things, and then the mind adds form to it, whatever the particular thing is, it always was that form. One can analyze matter by potentiality and actuality.
This is just a technical way of distancing him from Plato. Potentiality has idea of negation in it. Plato separates soul from body, Aristotle doesn't. Aristotle states that if this principle is true then it is the firmest of all principles both for knowledge and reality.
Some natural things are always a composite of matter and form, it is the answer to the question of what is ousia or being in nature. Any actualization has potentiality it is prior. Why would it be wrong to say that primary ousia can't be primary from the standpoint of knowledge, it can't be the distinction between ontological and epistemological. In Metaphysics, the "this" is simply matter. His talk of the Divine is the idea that there is something in reality that will satisfy the minds' desire for the ultimate stable resting point.
The Platonist in Aristotle says if the mind desires and is naturally inclined to pursue knowledge and he gives us a map how does it acquire knowledge. Other flexible words is essence. Socrates not human all by itself, not animal all by itself. When he gets to the question of the Divine, he does so because he believes that the natural desire of the mind can know that it will not have a final resting place with respect to just composite things.
God is Prime mover or final cause not efficient cause for Aristotle. 1st is human reproduction brings us into being. He stretches the way Ousia in many ways. Secondary Ousia or being is sometimes being is how we understand things, i.e., big or small, etc, this is how we talk about things. Math is not independent knowledge, it is dependent on things math is not a primary existence. The three factors of the principle are: the same thing, in the same time, in the same respect, is what Aristotle is calling the principle of noncontradiction. Movement is a way of understanding change we see this in the Physics. healthy skin, healthy food, then there is health, for Socrates what is health.
2.Timelessness. In order for knowledge to be reliable, these factors are in play. Because, whatever the categories are whatever the notions of say "horse" the "this" is a horse, the "this" is ontologically primary, but it can't be epistemologically primary because a "this" by itself is just a "this" the question "What is this" called a horse is to involve the categories of knowledge. 2.
He justifies the human use of animals as a natural act.Aristotle now wants to find what kind of government is best. Laws are created for people who are not virtuous. Aristotle criticizes Plato's Republic, he finds it to be overly controlling. I recommend Aristotle's works to anyone interested in obtaining a classical education, and those interested in philosophy. Rational language expands capacity in human life. "Law is reason unaffected by desire." A government of laws not men. Villages are a collection of households with a king. Aristotle says good political virtue and good moral virtue don't have to go together.
Socrates and Plato talk about the state holding all property in common. This is a formula on how to treat people relevant to goods. Socrates says the soul has 3 aspects and so does the Polis. Aristotle's concept of political justice and what is the best concept. This includes the state raising children after birth instead of the parents, thus there will be no family clans trying to better themselves over their neighbors.
Polis= "city or state." Humans live in society, so virtue ethics is not just for individual living, community is a shared project for the good. Aristotle criticizes this idea. Excellence of virtuous man not the same as a good citizen. "Born to be ruled." Slavish person does not have enough rationality to rule themselves. I read this book for a graduate seminar on Aristotle. The Soul has:1.Reason2.Passion3.AppetiteThe Polis has:1.Philosopher King.2.Guardians, (military).3.Commoners.Both are a hierarchal ordering. Love is diminished the less nuclear family we are. Aristotle is against letting experts running the Polis they are not always the best of judges.
There will be few virtuous men, but good citizens just have to follow the law. This is context dependent. Expertise in relation to politics. Politics is coming together to foster human development and happiness for community, citizens, and improving human life like education. Aristotle is one of the most important philosophers and the standard that all others must be judged by. Aristotle believes that holding property or rearing of children in common as in the Republic is wrong no one really loves children like their own and communal property never gets really taken care of.
Another philosopher coined a famous formula for this based on Relevant Respect:P= Person, Q= Quality, C= Context. Education is a central feature of political life for Aristotle. The deterioration is a "democracy or what today we call mob rule or tyranny of the majority. Aristotle says the best way to integrate citizens to the Polis is to allow them taking turns in ruling it.
It would be just to treat P1 + P2 equally or unequally if P1 + P2 are equal or unequal in Q (quality) relevant to C (content). Justice is not necessarily equality for all; sometimes it would be unjust to treat all people equally. We are meant to be social. Do you give the best flute to the best flute player which is based on merit or to the richest or best looking person. "Living finely then most of all is the goal of the city." Aristotle classifies 3 types of government which occur naturally in nature and 3 types of deteriorations of those governments, they are:1."Monarchy," rule by one man a king, this is a top down rule. Aristotle argues that some people are meant to be slaves right from birth.
Household is an economic relationship and has monarchy of patriarch. Aristotle says it should be public education. Aristotle says the judgment of the many combined as acting as one is better then a monarch or a few wise men to run the government. A living being as the last word is not good. The deterioration is an "oligarchy,' which he defines as rule of the rich who want to perpetuate themselves.3."Polity," All citizens participate in government with a constitution set above them to guide them instead of a king or aristocracy. Aristotle says a Polis is a plurality of people thus people are not all the same and a Polis must accommodate differences in people, which actually makes a Polis better.
Role of education in politics. Self-sufficiency is the mark of a Polis. Aristotle says not every form of actual enslavement is justified according to him. Comparison of virtue and the good citizen.
Politics by nature is a communal effort so you should use all the people's expertise. Aristotle says you need a mix of private and public property. Aristotle affirms a constitutional democracy or Polity. This is like "distributive justice" who gets what goods. Aristotle starts with his method, a phenomenological attitude. The best judge of the function of a house is the owner, not the builder.
He implies sometimes it is unjust to treat people equally. People who fight wars control politics in the Polis. The more people who have weapons in a civilian army is a guarantee that a small group of people will not take control of the government and democracy grows, like our 2nd amendment, this is a historical perspective of the idea that works. Politics is natural to human life. Politics is one of Aristotle's most prescient works that had a profound impact on our Founding fathers. Need a Polis to develop other human capacities.Aristotle's hierarchy. Plato's Republic does this with his advocacy of Philosopher king running government. According to Aristotle, "If you don't want to live in a state you are either a God or a beast." Logos= "rationality or language" is what helps us to be political animals.
"But we must find the relevant respect of equality or inequality; for this question raises a puzzle that concerns political philosophy." First, because someone is unequal on hierarchy that means better than others like more virtuous. Many professions we tend to defer to the experts for judgment, physicians, lawyers, etc. Not necessarily equality for all. He calls it rule of the poor.Aristotle does a good job of looking at states and how they can be corrupted.
In a Polis citizens have things in common. Nicomachean Ethics (EN) is part of political knowledge. This is similar to the acorn having the telos to become a mighty oak tree. Politics is rated high by Aristotle as a human good. Then you have a Polis, a fulfilled complete community formed from several villages. This is a contrast to the Polis of Sparta. Politics regulates when virtue does not.
Aristotle says inequality should tip towards those who earn it on merit. Since Aristotle thinks the Polis has a telos or an end then the Polis as potential comes even before the household. Slaves are a living tool for Aristotle. In principle, pooling of multiple people to run Polis is good. What does justice mean. He starts with pairs, male and female, builds up to ruler and subject, master and slave as a natural relationship, the 1st social community thus is the household.
All these are actualized in a Polis. Not all people are equal. Democracy spreads power to citizens a bottom up structure. Allot of empirical work to be done before we use the formula.
In addition, Aristotle says there may not really be any such thing as a political expert, like a philosopher king. The deterioration is a "Tyranny," who is a ruler who rules for his own benefit.2."Aristocracy," rule by the best few men in the Polis, also this is a top down rule. Only in a Polis can you have art, philosophy, etc.
Thus, the best kind of Polis is a combination of a governing element. Aristotle advocates for a constitutional democracy a written set of laws to protect Polis from a tyranny of the majority. An organized social relationship is Polis and a reason is being able to take care of needs of life and promote living well.
His concept of equality and inequality is based on merit. A citizen participates in government by definition for Aristotle. Politics completes the human condition for Aristotle.
Aristotle criticizes Socrates and Plato's idea of a Polis needing to have "unity" of people.
He justifies the human use of animals as a natural act.Aristotle now wants to find what kind of government is best. Laws are created for people who are not virtuous. Aristotle criticizes Plato's Republic, he finds it to be overly controlling. I recommend Aristotle's works to anyone interested in obtaining a classical education, and those interested in philosophy. Rational language expands capacity in human life. "Law is reason unaffected by desire." A government of laws not men. Villages are a collection of households with a king. Aristotle says good political virtue and good moral virtue don't have to go together.
Socrates and Plato talk about the state holding all property in common. This is a formula on how to treat people relevant to goods. Socrates says the soul has 3 aspects and so does the Polis. Aristotle's concept of political justice and what is the best concept. This includes the state raising children after birth instead of the parents, thus there will be no family clans trying to better themselves over their neighbors.
Polis= "city or state." Humans live in society, so virtue ethics is not just for individual living, community is a shared project for the good. Aristotle criticizes this idea. Excellence of virtuous man not the same as a good citizen. "Born to be ruled." Slavish person does not have enough rationality to rule themselves. I read this book for a graduate seminar on Aristotle. The Soul has:1.Reason2.Passion3.AppetiteThe Polis has:1.Philosopher King.2.Guardians, (military).3.Commoners.Both are a hierarchal ordering. Love is diminished the less nuclear family we are. Aristotle is against letting experts running the Polis they are not always the best of judges.
There will be few virtuous men, but good citizens just have to follow the law. This is context dependent. Expertise in relation to politics. Politics is coming together to foster human development and happiness for community, citizens, and improving human life like education. Aristotle is one of the most important philosophers and the standard that all others must be judged by. Aristotle believes that holding property or rearing of children in common as in the Republic is wrong no one really loves children like their own and communal property never gets really taken care of.
Another philosopher coined a famous formula for this based on Relevant Respect:P= Person, Q= Quality, C= Context. Education is a central feature of political life for Aristotle. The deterioration is a "democracy or what today we call mob rule or tyranny of the majority. Aristotle says the best way to integrate citizens to the Polis is to allow them taking turns in ruling it.
It would be just to treat P1 + P2 equally or unequally if P1 + P2 are equal or unequal in Q (quality) relevant to C (content). Justice is not necessarily equality for all; sometimes it would be unjust to treat all people equally. We are meant to be social. Do you give the best flute to the best flute player which is based on merit or to the richest or best looking person. "Living finely then most of all is the goal of the city." Aristotle classifies 3 types of government which occur naturally in nature and 3 types of deteriorations of those governments, they are:1."Monarchy," rule by one man a king, this is a top down rule. Aristotle argues that some people are meant to be slaves right from birth.
Household is an economic relationship and has monarchy of patriarch. Aristotle says it should be public education. Aristotle says the judgment of the many combined as acting as one is better then a monarch or a few wise men to run the government. A living being as the last word is not good. The deterioration is an "oligarchy,' which he defines as rule of the rich who want to perpetuate themselves.3."Polity," All citizens participate in government with a constitution set above them to guide them instead of a king or aristocracy. Aristotle says a Polis is a plurality of people thus people are not all the same and a Polis must accommodate differences in people, which actually makes a Polis better.
Role of education in politics. Self-sufficiency is the mark of a Polis. Aristotle says not every form of actual enslavement is justified according to him. Comparison of virtue and the good citizen.
Politics by nature is a communal effort so you should use all the people's expertise. Aristotle says you need a mix of private and public property. Aristotle affirms a constitutional democracy or Polity. This is like "distributive justice" who gets what goods. Aristotle starts with his method, a phenomenological attitude. The best judge of the function of a house is the owner, not the builder.
He implies sometimes it is unjust to treat people equally. People who fight wars control politics in the Polis. The more people who have weapons in a civilian army is a guarantee that a small group of people will not take control of the government and democracy grows, like our 2nd amendment, this is a historical perspective of the idea that works. Politics is natural to human life. Politics is one of Aristotle's most prescient works that had a profound impact on our Founding fathers. Need a Polis to develop other human capacities.Aristotle's hierarchy. Plato's Republic does this with his advocacy of Philosopher king running government. According to Aristotle, "If you don't want to live in a state you are either a God or a beast." Logos= "rationality or language" is what helps us to be political animals.
"But we must find the relevant respect of equality or inequality; for this question raises a puzzle that concerns political philosophy." First, because someone is unequal on hierarchy that means better than others like more virtuous. Many professions we tend to defer to the experts for judgment, physicians, lawyers, etc. Not necessarily equality for all. He calls it rule of the poor.Aristotle does a good job of looking at states and how they can be corrupted.
In a Polis citizens have things in common. Nicomachean Ethics (EN) is part of political knowledge. This is similar to the acorn having the telos to become a mighty oak tree. Politics is rated high by Aristotle as a human good. Then you have a Polis, a fulfilled complete community formed from several villages. This is a contrast to the Polis of Sparta. Politics regulates when virtue does not.
Aristotle says inequality should tip towards those who earn it on merit. Since Aristotle thinks the Polis has a telos or an end then the Polis as potential comes even before the household. Slaves are a living tool for Aristotle. In principle, pooling of multiple people to run Polis is good. What does justice mean. He starts with pairs, male and female, builds up to ruler and subject, master and slave as a natural relationship, the 1st social community thus is the household.
All these are actualized in a Polis. Not all people are equal. Democracy spreads power to citizens a bottom up structure. Allot of empirical work to be done before we use the formula.
In addition, Aristotle says there may not really be any such thing as a political expert, like a philosopher king. The deterioration is a "Tyranny," who is a ruler who rules for his own benefit.2."Aristocracy," rule by the best few men in the Polis, also this is a top down rule. Only in a Polis can you have art, philosophy, etc.
Thus, the best kind of Polis is a combination of a governing element. Aristotle advocates for a constitutional democracy a written set of laws to protect Polis from a tyranny of the majority. An organized social relationship is Polis and a reason is being able to take care of needs of life and promote living well.
His concept of equality and inequality is based on merit. A citizen participates in government by definition for Aristotle. Politics completes the human condition for Aristotle.
Aristotle criticizes Socrates and Plato's idea of a Polis needing to have "unity" of people.
It was interesting to compare his ideas to those of Plato since I just finished reading Plato's Republic. This book outlined his views on politics, and he quite blatantly goes against a lot of what Plato and Socrates said, but his ideas make sense, especially for the time and place when they were written. I think at heart, I'm more in agreement with Aristotle than with Plato. Perhaps I've been reading too many ancient Greeks and Romans, and certainly too many treatises on ancient politics, but I had a great deal of difficulty getting through this book. Aristotle is a very well-known philosopher and a student of Plato.
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